Do Bilingual Brains Stay Sharper Longer?
by Leo-Francis Daniels-Kaczmarczyk, C.O.
February 19, 2007
In the McAllen Monitor, on February 12, 2007, there appeared an article, by Carrie Peyton Dahlberg, titled "Study: Bilingual Brains Stay Sharp Longer". It quickly caught my attention because, 25 years ago, I along with some local educators (Mexican, Mexican-American, an American of recent Spanish ancestry who headed the Sociology Faculty at UT Pan American University at Edinburg, and some Anglos) did a study to justify the Hispanic bicultural school we were about to launch.
Professional "Hunch" Confirmed by Research
Our research, with the limited studies of that day, suggested that the learning of two languages early in life enhances intelligence. After 25 years of experience in bicultural education where Hispanic culture and Anglo culture are presented on an equal footing, the Pharr Oratory School System community of educators have been witnesses to this Bilingual Advantage Reality revealing itself in their school system's classrooms. What a blessing it was to see our once very limited researched-based "hunch" daily being confirmed by the on-going appearance of growing scientific data-based studies!
Holding Off a Fading Mind
The above-mentioned bilingual study, carried out at the Rotman Research Centre of Toronto's Baycrest Research Centre for Aging and the Brain, was conducted by Ellen Bialystok along with Fergus Craik and Morris Freedman and, subsequently, was professionally published in the February 2007 issue of Neuropsychologia (Bialystok, Craik, & Freedman, 2007). The Bialystok team, who studied people with dementia, discovered that the regular use of two languages promotes a four-year delay of those "fading-mind symptoms" which afflict monolingual patients four years earlier: i.e., bilingual patients who regularly speak two languages reported memory loss or other dementia symptoms on the average of four years later than do one-language patients.
Bialystok Study
In the Bialystok study, researchers examined the diagnostic records of 184 Baycrest memory-loss patients who, between 2002 and 2005, came seeking help for their cognitive complaints. Ninety-one of that 184 were monolingual; 93 were bilingual. The bilingual group included patients of 25 different languages--the most numerous language groups being Polish, Yiddish, German, Romanian and Hungarian.
The researchers found that 132 patients met criteria for probable Alzheimer's, while the other 52 received diagnoses of other dementias. Patient data included
- Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores (yielding a measurement of general cognitive functioning),
- years of education and
- occupation.
Upon first arrival, both monolingual and bilingual groups showed comparable levels of impairment, showing equivalent MMSE scores. Upon being interviewed for the first time, the attendant neurologist noted, by asking the patients, their famiies and/or caregivers, when the symptoms first appeared. The compilation of data showed that, in monolingual patients, the mean age of onset of dementia symptoms was 71.4 years, while, in bilingual patients, the mean age of onset was 75.5 years. "This difference remained even after considering the possible effect of cultural differences, immigration, formal education, employment and even gender as influencers in the results" (Baycrest, 2007, ¶9).
Bialystok stated
Studies Staving Off Dementia
The researchers could, therefore, hypothesize that since the frontal lobes that are in charge of planning and other high-level functions are, also, used in language, the corroboration of this study along with other similar data-based studies suggest that exercising those frontal lobes with bilingual mental activity can help build up a "cognitive reserve," staving off dementia (Bilingualism delays onset of dementia, 2007)
Referring to such allied studies, Dahlberg (2007, February 11) reported that Tamar Gollan, a University of Caifornia, San Diego, psychiatry professor who studies bilingualism stated that "Ellen Bialystok is a pioneer in this field and she's generating quite a buzz . . . People all over the world are replicating her findings for some of her earlier work" ( ¶9).
Bilingualism and Children
California and Texas-especially the Lower Rio Grande Valley--have, certainly, more at stake in understanding the bilingual brain. In the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas, the population is 87% Spanish/English bilingual (Anderson-Mejias, 202), making it a living laboratory for examining the impact of what can be gained from speaking more than one language.
Gollan admits that there are subtle deficits of bilingualism, yet, when weighting them, "she came down soundly on the side of raising her own small children with two languages" (Dahlberg, 2007B, ¶11).
On this matter of children and bilingualism, Dahlberg (2007) reported:
More Focused, Calmer, and Less Distracted
Bilinguals speakers, therefore, are more practiced than are monolinguals in using that part of the brain that (1) focuses our attention, (2) helps us sort through conflicting information, and (3) serves us in ignoring distractions. It appears, moreover, that the regular use of two languages strengthens (a) rapid decision-making, (b) multi-tasking and (c) memory.
Much of Bialystok's thinking is found in her 2001 book "Bilingualism in Development: Language, Literacy, and Cognition. In reviewing her book, Minami (2002) made the following comments:
Implication and Conclusion
One of the implications of the research findings reported in her book is "the common sense urgency about introducing English immediately in schools to language minority children, and about mainstreaming them as early as possible in school settings, has no basis in fact [emphasis added]. Overall, "Bilingualism in Development" differs from, and even surpasses other books of this kind in that it assembles a wide range of research on children's language development, interprets it with analyses of how bilingualism affects that development, and, above all, breaks the myths surrounding bilingualism and bilingual education" (Minami, 2002).
See also--What School Equity Means to Parents of Private School Children
References
Anderson-Mejias, P. L. (2002, October). The ESL teacher's role in heritage language maintenance. The Internet Test Journal, 8(10). Retrieved on February 15, 2007, from http://iteslj.org/Articles /Anderson- HeritageLanguage.html
Baycrest. (2007, January 11). Canadian study shows bi lingualism has protective effect in delaying on set of dementia by four years. Toronto: Baycrest: Enriching Care, Enhancing Knowledge, Enlightening Minds. Retrieved on February 14, 2007, from http://www.baycrest.org/ News_and_Media/default_8857.asp
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, Aging, and cognitive con trol: Evidence from the Simon task. Psychology and Aging, 19(2), 290-303. Retrieved on Feb ruary 14, 2007, from http://www.apa.org/ journals/releases/pag192290.pdf.
Bialystok, E., Craik, F., & Freedman, M. (2007, February). Canadian study shows bilingualism has protective effect in delaying onset of dementia by four years. Neuropsychologia, 45(2). Retrieved on February 14, 2007, from http://www.baycrest.org/News_and_Media/ default_8857.asp
Bilingualism delays onset of dementia: study. (2007, January 11). CBC News. Retrieved on February 14, 2007, from http://www.cbc.ca/canada /ottawa /story/2007/01/11/bilingual-alzeimer.html#skip300x250
Chipongian, L. (2000, June). The cognitive advantages of balanced bilingualism. Brain Connection. Retrieved on February 15, 2007, from http://www. brainconnetion.com/topics/?main=fa/cognitive-bilingualism
Dahlberg, C. P. (2007A, February 12) In study, bilingual brains stay sharp longer. McAllen, TX: The Monitor, 3A
Dahlberg, C. P. (2007B, February 11) In study, bilingual brains stay sharp longer. Bradenton Herald. Retrieved on February 14, 2007, from http://www.bradenton.com/mld/bradenton/news/nation/16676457.htm
Minami, M. (2002, Fall). Bilingualism in development: Language, literacy, and cognition. Bilingual Research Journal. Retrieved on Februrary 14, 2007, in http://www.findarticles.com /p/articles/mi_qa3722/is_200210/ai_n91 11568/
What School Equity Means to Parents of Private School Children
by Leo-Francis Daniels-Kaczmarczyk, C.O.
Private schools exist because parents want them. I remember one of the fathers whose six children are in our schools telling me: "Someone who knew that I, with seven children, lived on a very tight budget asked me, "José, you live modestly; so, I know you don't have much money. How in the world can you send six of your children to private Catholic school?" I answered him, "I don't have much money precisely because I send my children to private Catholic school. I try to invest my money in what I think is most important."According to Deborah Russell-Brown (2005), school equity in the public sector means "organizing parents to pressure the District to hire good, qualified teachers to come into low-performing schools and stay there" ( 4). To hard-working private school parents who sacrifice so much to send their children to private school, school equity means something quite different: It means having enough money to pay for excellence in education and its expenses. Dana Dratch (2006) studied the "private school parent phenomenon" and came up with some admirable parental behaviors. For example, Ann Botticelli, who budgets about $1,400 monthly for her son's high school tuition, explained, "There's just (so) much that I don't do because I made this choice. It's worth it, . . . [my son] is a very engaged and appreciative student" (Dratch, 2006, ¶3-4).
How do they do it? Some schools allow parents to pay tuition bills over a period of 12 months instead of 8 months. Other ways to make it financially is to make cars last longer, to take simpler and less extravagant vacations, to work more hours, and to trim some extras from the family budget. According to the National Association of Independent Schools (NAIS) 2005-2006 data, the average-median NAIS tuition for year at schools that are not affiliated with a religion is $17,145 for day students and $33,533 for boarding school students (Dratch, 2006).
To make ends meet, parents tap a variety of resourses (Dratch, 2006, ¶9):
- Aid from the school: 62 percent.
- The family paycheck: 59 percent.
- Personal savings: 35 percent.
- Home equity loans: 12 percent.
- Credit cards: 11 percent.
- Gifts from grandparents: 10 percent.
- Liquidating assets: 9 percent.
- Alimony/child support: 7 percent.
According to National Association of Independent Schools, in the 2006-2007 school year, of those parents who borrowed to pay the tuition, about 16% got loans that were not home loans; 70% borrowed from a bank or credit union; 23% borrowed from their own family, 9% got a loan through the school, and 6% borrowed from friends (National Association of Independent Schools, 2006).
According to 2004-2005 figures from the National Catholic Education Association (NCEA), the average cost of senior year tuition at a Catholic high school is about $5,870. About one-third of parents seek financial aid and about 27 percent get it; 62% of Catholic schools, moreover, have students on public assistance (National Catholic Education Association, 2007). The Partnership for Excellences in Jewish Education reports that, at Jewish high schools, 35 percent to 41 percent of students receive some type of financial aid (Dratch, 2006).
Joe McTighe, executive director of the Council for American Private Education (CAPE) is convinced that private schools are a lot more affordable than people realize. It is becoming more common for schools to offer their own financing, with more-flexible repayment plans than banks offer. In Oakland, CA, about 70% of Bishop O'Dowd High School parents, most of whom are affluent, have opted for monthly payments. "We've seen a steady increase in families signing up for tuition payment plans," says Nina Vellayan, president of business office solutions for educational lender Sallie Mae (Dratch, 2006, ¶26).
At Massachusetts-based Deerfield Academy, 40% of families get some kind of reduced tuition. The average grant at Deerfield is about $13,000 (Boarding School Review, 2007). Schools are able to afford the grants because, for their financial aid programs, they have become more aggressive at fundraising (Dratch, 2006). Most Catholic high schools have a development director like a college: For Example, the Pharr Oratory School System has a full time president and an alumni/annual fund director.
Private schools, moreover, have gotten much more serious about their fundraising. At Bishop Lynch High School in Dallas-where tuition runs about $8,700--about 30 percent of the students receive financial aid (Dratch, 2006).
According to Dratch (2006), to keep their children in private high school, it is not uncommon for parents to work at extra jobs. Finally, the fundamental rule for financial aid is: If you need it, ask.
References
Boarding School Review. (2007). Deerfield Academy. Retrieved on February 17, 2007, from http://www.boardingschoolreview.com/school_ov/school_id/4
Dratch, D. (2006, December 6). How parents pay for private school. Retrieved on February 17, 2007, from http://www.bankrate.com/brm/news/pf/20061206_prep_schools_a1.asp
National Catholic Education Association (NCEA). (2007). Catholic education questions. Washington, DC. NCEA. Retrieved on February 17, 2007, from http://www.ncea.org/FAQ/CatholicEducationFAQ.asp
National Association of Independent Schools (NAIS). (2006). Tuition loans programs. Washington, DC: National Association of Independent Schools. http://www.nais.org/admission/index.cfm?itemnumber=145881&sn. ItemNumber=142477&tn.ItemNumber=142480
Russell-Brown, D. (2005, Summer). Community voices: Some see room for improvement on equity issues. Philadelphia, PA: The Philadelphia Public School Notebook. Retrieved on February 17, 2007, from http://www.thenotebook.org /editions/2005/summer/community.htm
Thoughts on Learning
Instructional Strategies
by Leo-Francis Daniels-Kaczmarczyk, C.O.
Introduction
Robert Marzano and others have recently claimed that if a school or institution wants to make meaningful gains in student achievement, they need to look at the program and the strategies employed in the student/teacher relationship. In an attempt to improve the quality of teachers, research (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001) reveals "instructional strategies" that work to improve student achievement. What, then, are these strategies? McREL researchers have identified nine categories of instructional strategies.
1. Identifying Similarities and Differences
Knowing how to break a concept down into similar and dissimilar traits helps students to understand complicated problems by breaking them down, or analyzing, them into a simpler way. Instructors can, on the one hand, just present similarities and differences, and, then, allow for intelligent discussion and inquiry. Research shows that as the teacher will focuses on specific items while students encourage tend toward variation and broad understanding: It is help to represent similarities and differences, graphically (Marzano et al, 2001).
Applications:
(a) use Venn diagrams* or charts to compare and classify items.
(b) engage students in comparing, classifying, and creating metaphors and analogies.
2. Summarizing and Note-Taking
Summarizing and note taking skills foster more understanding, since students are urged to analyze a subject, capturing the essence of what is and, then, putting it in their own words. This requires substituting some things, omitting some things, retaining some things, and knowing, basically, the components of the essential structure of the reality in question (Marzano et al, 2001).Applications:
(a) show them how to summarize.
(b) in summarizing, get the students to express what is unclear, then, get them to clarify, and, finally, encourage them to predict the expected results, or consequences.
Research:
Taking more notes is better than fewer notes. Interestingly, verbatim note taking is not recommended, since it does not leave enough time to process the information. After showing students how to take notes properly, teachers should encourage students to review and revise their notes--notes can be the best study guide for the test (Marzano et al, 2001).Applications:
(a) let the students make use of teacher-prepared notes; this will show them how to take notes
(b) teach the student that they must have a consistent note-taking style. Each student will have his/her own style for taking notes.
3. Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition
Teaching students the importance of effort in fostering achievement and recognizing their actual work toward an identified degree and level of performance. Since students naturally understand and respond positively to serious strivings and being recognized, teachers, taking advantage of this, must make them see how effort and achievement are connected, or related. Research demonstrating that not all students, in fact, see the importance of effort, they can, nevertheless, learn to modify their thinking by acquiring positive attitude toward striving, working hard, and making an effort to achieve something (Marzano et al, 2001).Applications:
(a) give success story examples of people who did well by not giving up.
(b) the students can keep a diary recording their weekly efforts and achievements, meditate on the implications, and quantify the good it has done.
Research:
Recognition is most effective when it depends on the achievement of a certain goal or standard; symbolic recognition is more effective than tangible rewards (Marzano et al, 2001).Applications:
(a) create new way to personalize recognition; e.g., recognize with awards those who have done something worthy of recognition. Find ways to personalize recognition.
(b) when a student is having a difficult time:
- pause and talk about the problem,
- prompt, or encourage the student with advice improvement; and, finally,
- praise or bestow laudatory words upon the the student if performance improves.
4. Homework and Practice
Homework allows students to take their learning outside the classroom (Marzano et al, 2001):(c) quantity of homework depends on grade level;
(d) parent involvement should be minimal;
(e) teacher should explain the homework to student and parent teacher/guardian;
(f) teachers should give feedback on all homework
(a) have a homework policy with advice, e.g., schedule, time limit, etc., for students and parents;
(b) let the students know when they will have a test;
(c) let students know, specifically, what the homework is for;
(d) make the feedback effective by changing the way it is delivered.
Research:
Students should adapt skills while they are learning them. Effectiveness of practice is reflected in speed and accuracy (Marzano, 2001). Applications:(a) give timed quizzes for homework; ask the student to report on speed and accuracy.
(b) give adequate time for the explanation and absorption of difficult concepts, setting aside class time for practicing.
5. Non-Linguistic Representations
Research shows that knowledge is stored linguistically and visually: The achievement increases in proportions as they use conjointly these two forms of knowledge retention. It has been recently discovered that the use of nonlinguistic representation both stimulates and increases brain activity (Marzano et al, 2001).Applications:
(a) include both words and images along with symbols to represent relationships;
(b) make use of physical models and movement to represent data, or information.
6. Cooperative Learning
According to research, organizing students into cooperative groups renders a positive effect on general learning. If one is using cooperative learning strategies,(1) make sure that the groups are kept small and
(2) do not use this strategy too often, use a systematic and consistent style (Marzano et al, 2001)
Applications:
(1) in forming groups, make use of a diversity of criteria, i. e., common experiences or interests.
(2) make sure the group size and objectives are varied;
(3) group work should be designed around the core components of cooperative learning:
(a) positive interdependence,
(b) group processing,
(c) healthy use of social skills
(d) face-to-face interaction, and
(e) individual and group accountability.
7. Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback
Students are given a sense of direction for their learning when objectives are provided. Goals, however, should not be tightly specified, but should be easily adapted to the student's own objective (Marzano et al, 2001).Applications:
(a) establish a core goal for a unit; then, persuade students to use their own special interest to personalize that goal;
(b) set up contracts with students to determine, in schema form students' specific goals to be attained along with the grade to be received if they meet those goals.
Research:
Feedback generates positive results, most of the time. Teachers can never give too much feedback; teachers should, however, control how the feedback is formulated (Marzano et al, 2001).Applications:
(a) feedback should be corrective;
(b) students' behavior should be evaluated in relationship to specific levels of knowledge--the rubric-method works well;
(c) make sure the feedback is timely and specific;
(d) persuade students to take charge of feedback sessions.
8. Generating and Testing Hypotheses
Research shows that a deductive approach to this strategy is the most effective. Be it inductive or deductive, teachers should insist that students explain their hypotheses and conclusions with logical clarity (Marzano et al, 2001).Applications:
(a) help the students to hypothesize by asking them what would happen if a well-known system or culture were suddenly changed, e.g., government, church, library system, etc.
(b) students could be asked to construct something with limited resources: a task would generate questions and hypotheses about feasibility.
9. Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers
Cues, questions, and advance organizers encourage students to make use of something already known to elaborate on or enhance further learning. Research shows that such tools promote analytical thinking, help the student to stay focused on what is most important, and are most effective when presented before a learning experience (Marzano et al, 2001).Applications:
(a) if the teacher pauses shortly after asking a question, the student's answer will be more profound;
(b) the organizer should think ahead about what style he/she will use:
(c) talk about a personal experience;
(d) there are many ways to present information to a student before he/she actually "learns", or possesses it. A brief text can be read, a graphic image can be created.
Definition for word in Section 1.(a)
*Venn diagrams: illustrations used in mathematic set theory. They show the mathematical or logical relationship between distinct groups of things, or sets. Venn diagrams show the possible logical relations between the sets.Return to article